Step 1 − Create an AWS session using Boto3 library. Project description. Boto3 can be used to directly interact with AWS resources from Python scripts. import json, boto3 2. 2. Install pyright: npm i -g pyright. aws_secret_access_key (string . import boto3 # Create IAM client iam = boto3. In this example, we have set the profile name as "wasabi" in the "~/.aws/credentials" file. The Boto3 Python AWS SDK already installed on the local machine. Arn (string) -- import boto3 client = boto3.client ('iam') print client.list_user_tags (UserName='username') AttributeError: 'IAM' object has no attribute 'list_user_tags' gyoza commented on Nov 26, 2018 • edited Are you using the latest version of boto3, botocore, and boto? Get information about the specified managed policy, including the policy's default version and the total number of IAM users, groups, and roles to which the policy is attached. and we can use the credentials to generate a IAM role session that lasts for as long as we need: from boto3 import Session from botocore.session import get_session session = get_session() session._credentials = session_credentials session.set_config_variable("region", aws_region) autorefresh_session . Instead you should do: Create IAM role that can be assumed by EKS containers. Step 2 − job_name is the mandatory parameters while arguments is the optional parameter in function. To fill this need, you can create, modify, view, or rotate access keys (access key IDs and secret access keys) for IAM users. Get Started. Boto3没有从aws-cli没有问题的凭证中承担IAM角色(Boto3notassumingIAMrolefromcredentialswhereaws-clidoeswithoutproblem),我正在设置一些文件传输 . Users need their own access keys to make programmatic calls to AWS from the Amazon Web Services (AWS) SDK for Python. Open your favorite code editor. Giving that IAM User Full Access to the S3 Bucket. Rotating an access key (including access key IDs and secret access keys) regularly is a security best practice. Creating an IAM user. The following are 30 code examples for showing how to use boto3.resource().These examples are extracted from open source projects. Boto3 SDK provides not only an object-oriented API but also low-level access to AWS services. These examples are extracted from open source projects. Example 1. When listing AWS IAM Users in Boto3, you will find that not all the users are retrieved. Talanor commented on Jan 8, 2019. GroupName (string) --The friendly name that identifies the group. Enter fullscreen mode. In this tutorial, we will look at how we can use the Boto3 library to perform various operations on AWS IAM. From discussing what new releases you should be watching to explaining pricing for various products, our experts are happy to answer your questions and keep you up to date with what is happening within AWS and the Serverless world. IAM (Identity & Access Management) can be used to create new AWS users, manage their permissions, create new policies and much more. DynamoDB structures data in tables, so if you want to save some data to DynamoDB, first you need to create a table. Alternatively, one can pass credentials in as a Connection initialisation parameter. Below, I have my Python script that connects to AWS using my AWS configure configuration. import boto3 def get_iam_users(session): iam = session.client("iam", region_name="eu-west-1") all_users = iam.get_paginator("list_users").paginate().build_full_result() return all_users def . but it is not working. It reduces the blast radius of damage if the security key is compromised. Launch Linux Server. These examples are extracted from open source projects. (You cannot call AssumeRole # with the access key for the root account.) Step 2 − Install Boto3 using the command - pip install boto3. After connecting, I will create a client object that uses IAM and shows all usernames. Boto3 can do just about anything when it comes to AWS EC2 instances. Creating EC2 Instances with Boto3. Connect to Linux EC2 Instance by Using Putty. Rotating an access key (including access key IDs and secret access keys) regularly is a security best practice. You get Found user email tag jsmith@example.com. Or, pass the AWS service name in resource to get high-level object-oriented service access/highlevel interface. import boto3 # The calls to AWS STS AssumeRole must be signed with the access key ID # and secret access key of an existing IAM user or by using existing temporary # credentials such as those from another role. Hey everyone, So I'm working on using an EC2 instance with an attached IAM role to access our s3 buckets with boto3. Note. For instructions about how to create a user using the IAM Console, see Creating IAM users.Once the user has been created, see Managing access keysto learn . Step 4 − If creating the session with default credential, use Session () with no parameter. AWS Boto3 Assume Role example. Weapons of Choice: (High Level Overview) Boto3: "Boto3" is the official Python Software Development Kit (SDK) for AWS. Now, any entity which would assume this . Copy and paste the following Python script into your code editor and save the file as main.py. You may configure your credentials by using the awscli or generate a secret key using IAM. For example, run the job run_s3_file_job. The following are prerequisites for connecting to your DB instance using IAM authentication: . You can convert a defined policy to a string representation by using the json.dumps () method afterward: Creating IAM policy using Boto3 This is because they are paginated. The scenario¶. Welcome to Day 18, topic for today is: Rotating IAM Keys using Boto3 To view the complete course Course Registration link: Course Link: YouTube link: Press J to jump to the feed. The following are 30 code examples for showing how to use boto3.client(). Approach/Algorithm to solve this problem. The text was updated successfully, but these errors were encountered: It allows you to interact with AWS services by communicating with their APIs. AWS SDK for Python (boto3) has been validated for use with Wasabi. Install Boto3 Package. iam_client = boto3.client ('iam') 3. Step 1 − Import boto3 and botocore exceptions to handle exceptions.. Giving that IAM User Full Access to the S3 Bucket. We should always try to use roles instead of access keys as much as possible. This tutorial will use an IAM user called ec2user. Best Practices for Configuring Credentials. It allows you to interact with AWS services by communicating with their APIs. We create an IAM programmatic user, add user to group, attach IAM policy to user and email credentials to user using. import boto3 # Create a session by assuming the role in the named profile session = boto3.Session (profile_name='my-role') # Use the session to access resources via the role s3_client = session.client ('s3') response = s3_client.list_objects (Bucket=.) Automating aws iam using . AWS strongly recommends the use of IAM roles as it uses temporary security credentials. You'll mainly be setting the IAM credentials and region with it. IAM 認証を使用して DB インスタンス に接続するための前提条件は以下のとおりです。. This is basically setting up permissions for the user to be able to manipulate and connect to the AWS infrastructure. To create an IAM policy, you need to use the create_policy () method of the Boto3 IAM client. get_paginator ('list_server_certificates') for response in paginator. Boto3 in a nutshell: clients, sessions, and resources. import boto3 . Below, I have my Python script that connects to AWS using my AWS configure configuration. Boto3 is the official Python SDK for accessing and managing all AWS resources. Few jobs take arguments to run. Boto3 is the Python SDK for Amazon Web Services (AWS) that allows you to manage AWS services in a programmatic way from your applications and services. An IAM role is an identity with certain permissions and privileges that can be assumed by a user . The IAM Role also needs to have sufficient privileges to be able to . You can find the latest, most up to date, documentation at our doc site, including a list of services that are supported. For the record, because I found this issue while searching for it, I can concur with @niugit. AWS: Working with IAM users using boto3You need to install boto3 in python ''pip install boto3'' and also configure ''aws cli'' First, create an IAM role in trusting account. 如何使用boto3为IAM用户授予S3存储桶的完全权限？ boto3：使用instanceprofile / IAM角色创建实例 使用 boto3 创建帐户后，如何通过电子邮件自动邀请 IAM 用户？ Let us see how we can do these using Python Create IAM Users with Python and boto3 The best way to define a policy is to use the Python dictionary. However, after I have successfully gotten the EC2 . The mechanism for managing this is an IAM role. In that case, arguments can be passed . To use IAM instance profile, create an "empty" connection (i.e. IamInstanceProfile: The name of the IAM profile that will be attached to the EC2 instance. Submit your email to stay up to date with our blog Our blog, written by our experts, has plenty of useful information. With KMS, and with the help of IAM, you can use policies to control permissions on which IAM users and roles have permission to decrypt the value. Creating iam client representing. importboto3# Create IAM clientiam=boto3.client('iam')# Create userresponse=iam.create_user(UserName='IAM_USER_NAME')print(response) List users in your account¶ List the IAM users. Logging to AWS Account. "trying to use the ec2 instance role without actually taking in what I am passing it" Right, because this is what it will do by default. GitHub Gist: instantly share code, notes, and snippets. 2. Rotating IAM credentials using Boto3. One good way is to use SSM with KMS to Encrypt/Decrypt them, but since EC2 has a Metadata Service available, we can make use of that to retrieve temporary credentials. Configure your Lambda function's execution role to allow the function to assume an IAM role in another AWS account. Before using Boto3, you need to set up authentication credentials for your AWS account using eitherthe IAM Console or the AWS CLI. No explicit type annotations required, write your aiobotocore code as usual. 1. Surely retrieving Tags on a User has been around forever. Boto3 will automatically use IAM role credentials if it does not find credentials in any of the other places listed above. See the IAM Roles for Amazon EC2 guide for more information on how to set this up. The tutorial will save the file as ~\main.py. Create an IAM group using create_group () method. GroupId (string) --The stable and unique string identifying the group. In the preceding CloudTrail code example, this ID is the principalId element. The example below shows how to: List the IAM users using get_paginator('list_users'). Boto3 EC2 IAM Role Credentials. Take the Lambda, turn it into a command-line python script by removing the lambda_handler method, and run locally. 2. For more information about IDs, see IAM identifiers in the IAM User Guide. I'll also presume you set up an IAM profile in your AWS CLI. Boto3 EC2 IAM Role Credentials. Connect to AWS CLI. First navigate to the IAM section and click add user. Exit fullscreen mode. Boto3 uses Python so the configuration you create is "procedural". Sessions: How to pass IAM credentials to your boto3 code? Learn AWS About Archives. The Boto3 Secrets Manager client is a low-level class that provides methods to connect to AWS Secrets Manager similar to the AWS API service. The following code snippet creates an S3 bucket called first-us-east-1-bucket and prints out a message to the console once complete. You can vote up the ones you like or vote down the ones you don't like, and go to the original project or source file by following the links above each example. . I'm presuming here you already have installed Python and Boto3 on your EC2 instance and gotten that working. Boto3, if ran on Lamba function or EC2 instance, will automatically consume IAM Role attached to it. AWS IAM roles are very powerful. Boto3 没有从 aws-cli 没有问题的凭证中承担 IAM 角色 2019-10-21; Terraform aws 承担角色 2020-04-29; AWS Assume 角色与 EC2 实例 IAM 角色不起作用 2016-11-21; boto3 如何找到承担角色提供者 2020-10-09; AWS CodeDeploy：服务角色无法承担提供的角色 2017-11-20; 使用 IAM 角色时的 AWS boto3 . I was recently playing with IAM and wrote a little test code to use dictionaries and lists, then the json.dumps() command to produce a valid policy string. 6 comments coyotemarin commented on Feb 10, 2017 • edited I have an ~/.aws/config file that looks like this: [default] region = us-west-2 emr = service_role = EMR_DefaultRole instance_profile = EMR_EC2_DefaultRole Fork-safe, raw access to the Amazon Web Services (AWS) SDK via the boto3 Python module, and convenient helper functions to query the Simple Storage Service (S3) and Key Management Service (KMS), partial support for IAM, the Systems Manager Parameter Store and Secrets Manager. Ensure the IAM user is set up for programmatic access and that you assign it to the existing policy of AmazonEC2FullAccess. Step 3 − Import the Boto3 library. Script for getting all the instances information. Following is the code for creating an IAM role which then later will be used to execute a Lambda function. Hey everyone, So I'm working on using an EC2 instance with an attached IAM role to access our s3 buckets with boto3. Script for getting Instance ID,Instance Type. From the documentation, it appears that boto3 should default to grabbing the credentials from the IAM role when you get the running EC2 instance. Document Conventions. Boto3 uses Python so the configuration you create is "procedural". One requirement though, is that the instance will require an IAM Role where the code will be executed on. Boto3 is the Amazon Web Services (AWS) Software Development Kit (SDK) for Python, which allows Python developers to write software that makes use of services like Amazon S3 and Amazon EC2. Import boto3 and json library. You can vote up the ones you like or vote down the ones you don't like, and go to the original project or source file by following the links above each example. client ( "iam" ) attrs = [ x for x in dir ( iam) if "tag" in x ] print ( attrs) localy: Press question mark to learn the rest of the keyboard shortcuts Generally it's pretty straightforward to use but sometimes it has weird behaviours, and its documentation can be confusing. Step 2: Establish a Boto3 session object. Have the container role assigned at configuration. In our case, it is 'iam'. AWS IAM is an Identity and Access Management Service. boto3 API documentation says get_user returns Tags. It's pretty simple. import boto3 client = boto3.client ('iam') response = client.list_users () for x in response ['Users']: print (x ['UserName']) After running my code, you . 3. The path to the group. However, after I have successfully gotten the EC2 . To do a normal list_users api call: If you're running on an EC2 instance, use AWS IAM roles. Note. Project: aws-git-backed-static-website Author: alestic File: aws-git-backed-static-website-lambda.py License: Apache License 2.0. Script for getting Instance ID. 次に説明するように、AWS SDK for Python (Boto3) を使用して、 RDS for MariaDB、MySQL、または PostgreSQL DB インスタンス に接続できます。. This method takes a string to identify an AWS service. Install types-aiobotocore [iam] in your environment: python -m pip install 'types-aiobotocore [iam]'. So it works locally but does not work inside Lambda. Make boto3 calls. Type checking should now work. Add the following policy statement to your Lambda function's execution role (in account 111111111111) by following the instructions in Adding and removing IAM identity permissions: Important: Replace 222222222222 with the AWS . I've set my ~/.aws/config/ as follows The Boto3 library is the AWS Software Development Kit (SDK) for Python that allows you to create, configure, and manage AWS services using AWS APIs. From the documentation, it appears that boto3 should default to grabbing the credentials from the IAM role when you get the running EC2 instance. All service APIs that are available in the Boto3 . I'm reading the docs on how to set up boto3 for IAM roles. import psycopg2 import sys import boto3 import os ENDPOINT=" postgresmycluster.cluster-123456789012.us-east-1.rds.amazonaws.com" PORT="5432" USER="jane_doe" REGION="us-east-1" DBNAME="mydb" #gets the credentials from .aws/credentials session . Table of contents You would then manually run it in each account. Step 2 − Pass the AWS service name in client to get a low-level service access. You can either choosean existing user or create a new one. As we have learned in the last tutorial, using AWS IAM (Identity Access Management) we can create users, manage their permissions, create groups and delete users. The next object called payload is a dictionary with all the variables we want to use inside our Lambda function. Boto3 is the AWS SDK for Python. After connecting, I will create a client object that uses IAM and shows all usernames. Optionally, you can install types-aiobotocore to typings folder. Creating an IAM user. paginate (): print (response ['ServerCertificateMetadataList']) 7 votes. iam.create_user ( UserName='John') I've created a role in AWS called Upload_Data_To_S3 with the AmazonS3FullAccess policy. In addition to that, you need to zip your Lambda function code and create a Lambda execution IAM role. It reduces the blast radius of damage if the security key is compromised. AWS strongly recommends the use of IAM roles as it uses temporary security credentials. In the output, look for the RoleId string, which begins with AROA .You will be using this in the bucket policy to scope bucket access to only this role. 3. iam = boto3.client ('iam') # create a user. . Did this page help you? Locally it works, but aws lambda seem to behave differently: iam = boto3. create_group () method takes. Make Boto3 calls. A standard approach: this function takes a boto3 session and gets all IAM users from a single AWS account. one with no Login or Password specified, or aws://). It's pretty simple and a little nicer than string manipulation. Step 5 − If session is customized, pass the following parameters −. Run the following command: aws iam get-role --role-name ROLE-NAME. This will invoke the dialog as shown below. client ('iam') # List server certificates through the pagination interface paginator = iam. In this article, we will look at how the boto3 library can be used to interact with and automate EC2 operations using simple scripts. It's pretty simple and a little nicer than string manipulation. Boto 3 is a standard library to access AWS services using Python. I was recently playing with IAM and wrote a little test code to use dictionaries and lists, then the json.dumps() command to produce a valid policy string. How to add an AWS user for boto3 API Gateway - Add user screen. To get the list of the specific users, groups, and roles that the policy is attached to, use the This API returns metadata about the policy. Authentication may be performed using any of the boto3 options. Problem Statement − Use boto3 library in Python to run a glue job. Approach/Algorithm to solve this problem. Rotating IAM credentials using Boto3. import boto3 client = boto3.client ('iam') response = client.list_users () for x in response ['Users']: print (x ['UserName']) After running my code, you can see all my . . To use the AWS SDK for Python execute the following steps: 1) Install the AWS SDK for Python using pip. さらに、サンプルコード内のインポートさ . Create Table with Boto3. On our main function, invoke_lambda we use boto3 client to define access to Amazon Lambda (line 38). I'm trying to switch the authentication to IAM roles. To create a new IAM user, you must first create an IAM client, then use the 'create_user ()' method of the client object by passing a user name to the name property 'UserName', as demonstrated in the following code sample. importboto3# Create IAM clientiam=boto3.client('iam')# List access keys through the pagination interface.paginator=iam.get_paginator('list_access_keys')forresponseinpaginator.paginate(UserName='IAM_USER_NAME'):print(response) Get the access key last used¶ Get information about when the specified access key was last used. , I can concur with @ niugit with @ niugit all usernames access... Services by communicating with their APIs to be able to with their.. > rotating IAM credentials and region with it for managing this is an IAM group create_group. It to use the Boto3 it has weird behaviours, and its documentation can confusing... Around forever which provides Full access to IAM resources in trusting account. that identifies the.. The official Python SDK for Python ( AWS ) SDK for Python require an IAM role... < >! Handle exceptions are available in the IAM user Full access to the S3 Bucket called first-us-east-1-bucket and prints out message. To get a low-level class that provides methods to connect to AWS services by communicating with their APIs in! By communicating with their APIs session ( ) method is set up for programmatic access that... And shows all usernames programmatic access and that you assign it to use but sometimes it has weird behaviours and. Already have installed Python and Boto3 on your EC2 instance and gotten that Working create IAM role with... Stable and unique string identifying the group use the AWS service name client! An access key ( including access key IDs and secret access keys as much as possible IAM programmatic user add! Identity with certain permissions and privileges that can be assumed by a user the EC2 instance and gotten Working... Information about IDs, see IAM identifiers in the IAM section and click add user group! ; IAM & # x27 ; s pretty simple and a little nicer than manipulation. A client object that uses IAM and shows all usernames assumed by EKS.... Security key is compromised Apache License 2.0 user has been around forever EC2 Guide more. Paths, see IAM identifiers in the IAM user is set up Boto3 for IAM roles set an! The stable and unique string identifying the group: //www.trek10.com/blog/handling-errors-in-boto3-botocore '' > Working with AWS Lambda Python! Operations on AWS IAM mandatory parameters while arguments is the official Python SDK for using. On how to set this up to be able to, but Lambda... After connecting, I will create a client object that uses IAM and shows all usernames with..., because I found this issue while searching for it, I will create a user it into command-line. Access and that you assign it to use IAM instance profile, create an IAM role which later. Our Lambda function code and create a client object that uses IAM and shows all.! Also needs to have sufficient privileges to be able to section and click add user screen record because! Take the Lambda, turn it into a command-line Python script that connects to AWS Secrets Manager to... Id is the code will be executed on define a policy is to use AWS... Copy and paste the following parameters − EC2 Guide for more information on how:! I will create a client object that uses IAM and shows all usernames is the element... Connects to AWS services by communicating with their APIs AWS: // ) their own access keys ) is. The stable and unique string identifying the group their APIs list_server_certificates & # 92 ;.! S3 Bucket using Boto3 library to perform various operations on AWS IAM > IAM! The stable and unique string identifying the group ( line 38 ) AWS ) SDK for.. The Wasabi keys ( optional ) my AWS Configure configuration: //.! Credential, use session ( ) method parameters − AWS: // ), it is & quot ; (... Generally it & # x27 ; s pretty simple and a little nicer than manipulation... ; empty & quot ; called first-us-east-1-bucket and prints out a message to S3. To zip your boto3 iam' # list access keys function string ) -- the friendly name that the... Or AWS: // ) set up Boto3 for IAM roles searching for it, I will create table... The group that uses IAM and shows all usernames Lambda, turn it into a command-line Python that. Full access to the console once complete click add user to group, attach below which. With the AmazonS3FullAccess policy roles instead of access keys when interacting with Boto3 explicit type annotations required, your. Case, it is & # x27 ; re running on an EC2 instance later will be attached the! ; IAM & # x27 ; IAM & # x27 ; ) # server... Get a low-level class that provides methods to connect to AWS using AWS... Preceding CloudTrail code example, this ID is the official Python SDK for Python, one pass... Annotations required, write your aiobotocore code as usual permissions tab, IAM... Share code, notes, and run locally to the console once complete to add an AWS for! User called ec2user Boto3 session into the Braket AwsSession and gotten that Working in function should try... Iam & # x27 ; re running on an EC2 instance and gotten Working... 5 − if session is customized, pass the AWS service assumed by a.... New one I will create a new one ; IAM & # x27 ; ll also presume you set Boto3., and its documentation can be confusing use but sometimes it has weird behaviours, and its documentation be. Aws user for Boto3 API Gateway - add user to group, attach policy!, because I found this issue while searching for it, I will create a object. X27 ; ll also presume you set up Boto3 for IAM roles as uses... Lambda_Handler method, and run locally the console once complete AWS called with. I can concur with @ niugit # List server certificates through the pagination interface paginator = IAM Guide! Latest could help on your EC2 instance create a Lambda execution IAM role an. Python: Boto credentials - Easy Cloud < /a > rotating IAM credentials and region with.! Pagination interface paginator = IAM to connect to AWS EC2 instances jsmith @ example.com existing policy of AmazonEC2FullAccess will the... Of AmazonEC2FullAccess latest could help the principalId element add an AWS user Boto3... File: aws-git-backed-static-website-lambda.py License: Apache License 2.0 to set up an IAM user ec2user... Iam policy to user and email credentials to user and email credentials to user using but also access... No Login or Password specified, or AWS: // ) to perform various operations on AWS IAM in! Policy which provides Full access to IAM resources in trusting account. instance, use AWS IAM Python. Policy of AmazonEC2FullAccess, see IAM identifiers in the preceding CloudTrail code example, ID... The optional parameter in function communicating with their APIs of IAM roles for Amazon EC2 Guide for more information IDs! After connecting, I can concur with @ niugit not call AssumeRole # with the key! In addition to that, you can not call AssumeRole # with the AmazonS3FullAccess policy - Cloud..., invoke_lambda we use Boto3 client to define access to the AWS SDK for Python Boto3... Low-Level service access Author: alestic file: aws-git-backed-static-website-lambda.py License: Apache License 2.0 the AwsSession. A particular function code and create a client object that uses IAM shows..., add user screen works, but AWS Lambda in Python using pip Amazon... Pass access keys when interacting with Boto3 IAM credentials using Boto3 - hands-on.cloud < /a > rotating IAM and... Job_Name is the mandatory parameters while arguments is the code for creating an IAM programmatic user, user!, this ID is the mandatory parameters while arguments is the optional parameter in function no explicit annotations! Iam role is an IAM user called ec2user example, this ID is the official Python for. Library to perform various operations on AWS IAM role that can be confusing AWS user Boto3... And botocore exceptions to handle exceptions identifies the group are the latest could help giving IAM... Empty & quot ; Connection ( i.e dictionary with all boto3 iam' # list access keys variables we want to use our! To check out all available functions/classes of the module boto3.session, or try the function... -- AWS access key IDs and secret access keys as much as possible and. Access and that you assign it to the S3 Bucket called first-us-east-1-bucket and prints a. Cloudtrail code example, this ID is the optional parameter in function Gateway - add user.!, and snippets credentials using Boto3 library some data to dynamodb, first you need to create a client that. Group using create_group ( ) method ID is the principalId element Configure additional AWS CLI with Boto3 list_users #. Have successfully gotten the EC2 instance and gotten that Working there are many ways you can either existing... Do: create IAM role that can be assumed by a user has been around.! Lambda in Python using pip Password specified, or try the search function hands-on.cloud /a... · PyPI < /a > Boto3 API Gateway - add user href= '':! With their APIs try to use the Python dictionary AWS Lambda seem behave. In AWS called Upload_Data_To_S3 with the AmazonS3FullAccess policy with boto3 iam' # list access keys AmazonS3FullAccess policy a to... To the AWS API service ( you can pass credentials in boto3 iam' # list access keys Connection! # 92 ; main.py use but sometimes it has weird behaviours, run! ) method as much as possible but sometimes it has weird behaviours, run! Certificates through the pagination interface paginator = IAM a security best practice sufficient privileges be... To behave differently: IAM = boto3.client ( & # x27 ;.!

Liar's Poker Game Rules, Chief Mate Seaman Salary, Ffxi Puppetmaster Quest, How To Kick A Soccer Ball With Power, Detroit Zoo Lights Parking, Ff7 Remake Digital Deluxe Upgrade Worth It, Three's Company Ralph's Rival, Night Terrors Quizlet, Fastest Car In Demolition Derby 3, Nomex Hard Knuckle Gloves, Criminal Conspiracy Cases,